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In this chapter we question the degree to which citizenship rights based on the values of equality, non-discrimination, inclusion, human dignity, freedom, and democracy, are respected in Belgium, and the extent to which these rights extend to non-citizens living on Belgian territory. Our conceptualization of non-citizens also includes legal citizens who feel they are unable to fully exercise their citizenship rights and responsibilities, or who experience political, social, and economic citizenship in problematic ways. We find that these groups disproportionally cluster in and around Brussels, with non-citizens articulating their own everyday experiences through participatory action research. We argue that non-citizens also have relationships with the state that are often underacknowledged and misconstrued but are crucial to understanding citizenship itself.
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Amara-Hammou, K., Brenton, S., Frehen, L., & Uyttendaele, L. (2025). Citizens and non-citizens in Belgium. In Min Reuchamps; Marleen Brans; Petra Meier; Emilie Van Haute (ed.), Oxford Handbook of Belgian Politics. Oxford University Press. https://hdl.handle.net/2078.5/239390